Core technical principles

Developments in new materials

Composite materials such as CFRP are used for high-performance bicycle frames because of their high strength-to-weight ratio compared to steel or aluminium — equal stiffness at lower mass.

Energy generation and storage

A capacitor is an electronic component that stores energy in an electric field between two plates and can release it very quickly when discharged.

Materials and their working properties

Cast iron tends to be brittle (except for malleable cast iron, which approaches mild steel's properties); cast iron is generally more brittle than mild steel.

Mechanical devices

A 3/2 directional control valve has 3 ports and 2 positions; it controls a single-acting cylinder (supply, exhaust, switch-over).

New and emerging technologies

Additive manufacturing (3D printing) builds three-dimensional parts layer by layer from a digital CAD model.

Systems approach to designing

The 555 timer IC in astable mode produces a continuous square-wave pulse train; the frequency and duty cycle are set by external resistors and a capacitor.

Developments in new materials

Formula 1 monocoque chassis are built primarily from carbon-fibre-reinforced polymer (CFRP) — chosen for combined stiffness, low mass, and energy absorption in crashes.

Energy generation and storage

A hydrogen fuel cell generates electricity by electrochemically combining hydrogen and oxygen; the only by-product is water (plus heat).

Materials and their working properties

Density is mass per unit volume, measured in kg/m³.

Mechanical devices

A 5/2 directional control valve (5 ports, 2 positions) switches air to either side of a double-acting cylinder, enabling controlled extend/retract motion.